Identifying The Experience Of Child Protection Issues Social Work Essay Essay Example

Identifying The Experience Of Child Protection Issues Social Work Essay Essay This study is being written to indentify the experience of Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander kids with the Child Protection and Foster Care system. This study will endeavor to indentify the nature of the issue and explicate how it peculiarly impacts on Australia s Autochthonal people. Third, the study will look at The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Placement Principle and how it pertains to Indigenous kids in the Foster attention system. The study will analyze its beginnings, Indigenous position on the Principle and its execution. Last, this study will measure the The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Placement Principle. We will write a custom essay sample on Identifying The Experience Of Child Protection Issues Social Work Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Identifying The Experience Of Child Protection Issues Social Work Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Identifying The Experience Of Child Protection Issues Social Work Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Learning from History It is the right of all kids to be loved, safe, protected, nurtured and to hold entree to the services they need in order to go forth a whole and fulfilling life. This is a basic right that is primary to the wellbeing of a kid and his development. In decennaries past, many Indigenous kids, or Disregarded Australians , who were removed from their households for assorted grounds, were denied the basic right of all kids to have protection, support and loving attention ( FAHCSIA ) . Today, the Australian Government is committed to larning from its history and bettering the quality of life experience by our kids and immature people. The Australian Government and the non-government sector recognize that households are the cardinal system that supports and nurtures our kids and immature people. There is a national committedness to supply child-centred, family-focused responses as the most effectual manner to assist kids and immature people who are disadvantaged, neglected or abused, or at hazard of going so in ulterior life. 2.1 The Issue As of June 2010, there were 24, 279 kids populating in Out of Home Care. Of these, 11, 468 of these kids were of Indigenous or Torres Strait Islander decent, doing them 9 times more likely to be in Out of Home Care so non-Indigenous kids ( 44.8 in every thousand compared with 4.9 in every 1000 ) 0 ( FAHCSIA ) . Harmonizing to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Indigenous Australian kids are 8 times more likely than non-Indigenous kids to hold been involved with Child Protection services and experience remotion orders. The arrangement of kids in Out of Home Care is widely recognised as the most terrible signifier of kid public assistance intercessions. Autochthonal kids are non merely more likely to be placed in Out of Home Care, but to come in attention at a younger age and to stay in attention longer than other kids. ( SNAIIC ) Disregard is the most common ground for Indigenous kids to be removed from their households, with 37.5 % of Autochthonal kids in the system is due to pretermit ( Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2010 ) . 2.2. Children in Care In the yesteryear when Autochthonal kids were removed from their households they were by and large placed with Non-Indigenous carers or insitutions. These kids were cut off from their households and were forced to absorb into non-Indigenous Australian civilization. This has had an improbably detrimental consequence on the development of the Indigenous kids involved and their households, doing what is by and large known as the Stolen Generation . When Autochthonal kids are placed in the attention of non-indigenous people, despite the good purposes and positive environment of the Care-givers, the Indigenous kids doubtless suffer in their cultural development and individuality, which can do reunion hard, if non impossible, due to relational and individuality issues it causes between the kid and their birth household ( and community ) . Unfortunately, small to no research has been done on the effects of Autochthonal kids in Out of Home attention. The SNAICC have put forward recommendations that comparings and ratings be done on the assorted experience of Autochthonal kids in Out of Home Care ( 2011 ) . The Policy In an effort to diminish the injury that Autochthonal kids and their households experience when the kids are placed in Out of Home Care, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Placement Principle ( Australian Human Rights Commission, 2008 ) was accepted in 1986 by all of Australia. However, it was non until about 10 old ages subsequently that the Principle transitioned from simply policy to go legislative pattern ( Child Protection Peak, LTD. ) The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Placement Principle states the order in which it is preferred for Autochthonal kids to be placed once they are removed from their households: Their drawn-out households The kid s autochthonal community Other Autochthonal people If none of the above can be arranged, merely so will an Autochthonal kid go to a non-Indigenous Carer ( Australian Human Rights Commission, 2008 ) The Principle acknowledges that the old policies on assimilation caused agony to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. It reflects the right of Autochthonal people to raise their kids in their ain civilization and maintain them as a portion of their communities ( Australian Human Rights Commission, 2008 ) . Childs that are placed in one of the three preferred options are described as being placed in conformity with the rule ( Australian Human Rights Commission, 2008 ) . In Australia in 2009-10, 70.5 % of Autochthonal kids who were placed in Out of Home Care were put in a preferable arrangement under the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Placement Principle such as with drawn-out household, other Autochthonal health professionals or in Autochthonal residential environment. The Principle besides requires that an Autochthonal administration or bureau be involved in the determination as to where to put the kid. In some legal power, the drawn-out household of the kid is besides involved in the determination ( SNAICC, 2011 ) . If a kid can non be placed with Autochthonal carers, so the Principle requires that every attempt be made for the kid to keep connexion with their household, linguistic communication and civilization ( SNAICC, 2011 ) . Literature reappraisal For the intent of this study, information on the experience of Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander kids with Out of Home Foster attention was gathered from assorted equal reviewed articles, authorities and non-government studies. Though it must be noted that non all available stuff was researched due to time-constraints, the undermentioned information pertain to the beginnings used to inform this study: Many of the articles and studies focus to a great extent on the quantitative informations that represents and informs the statistics of Autochthonal kids in attention and for the assorted grounds for this happening. All articles, particularly those written by Indigenous organisations, see the Principle as a acknowledgment of the racialist attitudes held by past Australian Governments policies that removed Autochthonal kids from their households and into the places of Non-Indigenous, white Australians. Many of the beginnings believe the ground why there is such a high figure of Autochthonal kids in attention is, in a sense, a fall-out of the Stolen Generation ; the kids of the Stolen Generation were so traumatised that, now they are grownups, they can non rear their ain kids. A study done by the SNAICC in 2011 calls for comparative research to be done in the experience of Autochthonal kids in the assorted surrogate scenes. None of the literature disagreed with the Principle, merely that it can non be placed above the precedence to maintain the kid safe ( SNAICC, 2011 ) . The literature focused more on why Children are in attention, instead than how to forestall this and rehabilitate the parents who be traumatized by the Stolen Generation. Evaluation Harmonizing to the SNAICC, The Child Placement Principle is extremely important to Indigenous peoples for a figure of single, but connected, grounds: 1.In regard to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander kids, execution of the Principle provides the chance for these kids to keep a strong connexion to their extended household and community which is an of import factor in the kid developing a healthy and culturally relevant sense of individuality and well-being. 2. The SNAICC believe that the Principle was contrary to and discredits the thought that was the foundation for the policies of segregation and cultural assimilation held by the Australian Governments in old ages gone by. 3. It is possible that the psychological benefits of a kids being placed with members of their ain household or members of their ain culture/community is applicable to all kids in general. This could be specifically of import to kids of other civilizations populating within Australia In a qualitative study conducted by the Association of Children s Welfare Agencies NSW ( ACWA, 2004 ) , this sensed psychological benefit was the figure one ground spring by comparative carers for looking after a kid from their ain family- They re your ain flesh and blood one respondent was recorded as stating. It is besides seen as less traumatic for the kid to be placed in kin attention, as the people they are being placed with are people they place with, person they know .and experience comfy with . A strong sense of household duty was besides recognised in the study as a benefit of Family attention ( ACWA, 2004 ) The strong support for household or family attention for Autochthonal kids can besides be seen by the common position of many Autochthonal people that alternative signifiers of surrogate attention were flawed and potentially detrimental to the kids s development. One respondent to the study said that I think our history of other signifiers of alternate attention is black ( ACWA, 2004 ) . This is in mention to the Stolen Generations ( Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1997 as cited by ACWA, 2004 ) . 4.1 As mentioned antecedently, 70.5 % of Autochthonal kids are placed harmonizing to Principle . While this can be seen as a success compared to the old policies that affected the Stolen Generation, it is of import to discourse the other 29.5 % that are with non-Indigenous carers. This is chiefly due to the deficiency of Autochthonal carers in the Foster attention system. Some suggest that there are three chief grounds for this deficit: Trauma associated with the Stolen Generation has rendered some Autochthonal people incapable of looking after kids The hesitance of some Autochthonal people to be associated with the Welfare system in visible radiation of old public assistance policies and experience There are significantly more Autochthonal kids than there are Autochthonal grownups. Foster Agencies so hold much work to make in order to accommodate themselves with the Indigenous community. It besides increases their duty to the 29.5 % to guarantee sufficient and effectual cultural plans are available and utilized by the non-Indigenous carers and their Autochthonal Foster kids. 4.3 Whilst the SNAICC clearly support the Principle and believe that kids maintain connexions with their household and community is critical, they are concerned that the safety of Indigenous kids has non been discussed in recent treatments on the Principle. Whilst maintaining civilization is of import, it is neer more so than the safety of a kid placed in Out of Home attention. Puting a kid in the attention of a household member or their community merely to adhere to the Principle can neer be a justification for go forthing or seting the kid at hazard ( Berlyn, Bromfield A ; Lamont, 2011 ) . Decision As of June 2010, 47 % of kids in Out of Home Care we Indigenous kids. This makes Autochthonal kids 9 times more likely to be in attention than non-Indigenous kids. The highest ground for kids to be removed from their parents is neglect. Due to the history of the Autochthonal people, specifically in respects to the Stolen Generation and the policies that informed it, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Child Placement Principle was introduced to maintain Autochthonal Children within their households, community or civilization in order to advance positive cultural individuality and better familial dealingss. Presently, merely 70.5 % of Autochthonal kids in attention are placed harmonizing to the Principle. More demands to be done to enroll Indigenous Foster carers and to efficaciously cut down the figure of Autochthonal kids traveling into attention.

How to Personalize Your Revision Checklist

How to Personalize Your Revision Checklist How to Personalize Your Revision Checklist How to Personalize Your Revision Checklist By Guest Author This is a guest post by Laura Hamby. If you want to write for Daily Writing Tips check the guidelines here. Everyone has their methods. I’ve read revision checklists all over the Internet, but still that didn’t stop me from coming up with my very own checklist. Why? Why not? Who knows better than I how I write? And while I will confess to incorporating items from the checklists of other authors, especially those who write in the genre I do (because I’m a big fan of learning from others), I also know the areas I need to pay attention to on the second/third, et cetera, go-round on my manuscript. The idea is not to revise your voice right out of your work. It is possible to do that if you’re not careful. You also don’t want to revise yourself so you wind up sounding like the person whose checklist you’ve borrowed for your own use. So, what did I consider when putting my personalized checklist together? I’m glad you asked. 1. Things my critique partner pings me on regularly. In the beginning, I had a crit partner who would whack my knuckles with her cyber ruler about head hopping. Stay in ONE point of view? It took me a while to figure it out, but eventually I caught on and now when I head hop, I KNOW what I’m doing. These things are subject to change as you grow as a writer. 2. Things I personally think I can and should do better. Several years ago, I gave myself a mission to use better, stronger verbs whenever and wherever I could. I took baby steps in the beginning, I’d write, then go back and check for passive, lackluster verbs. After a while, I moved on to refusing to use a wimpy verb in the rough draft, even if it meant I stared at the screen until I came up with something better. I like to think now that I’ve about got this licked- the verbs with verve come more easily than the verveless verbs now. As with number one, the items on this portion of your checklist will change, which is exactly what you want, as it shows that you’re growing as a writer. 3. Feedback I’ve received from editors. Hey, I figure if I’m lucky enough to get a rejection complete with what worked and what didn’t work for the editor, that’s as positive a rejection as you can get. And boy, how stupid would I be to discount what the editor has to say? 4. Those pesky generic things that should be on every revision checklist. You know, fun things like spelling, grammar, punctuation, looking for words that are words but are the wrong words. Example: â€Å"The hen is mightier than the sword.† These are what I like to call ‘Fun Typos’ because they often are worth at least a weak giggle, if not a full belly laugh when you find them. 5. Compositional/conventional aspects. Plot, flow, pacing, all threads tied off in a pretty bow, and so forth. 6. Have I stayed true to my voice? We all have a unique voice, but sometimes, it’s possible for it become lost when we try to be too clever or when we fight our way through a scene as if it were a paper bag we had to escape from using nothing but a dull toothpick. This is the part that is truly personal, above and beyond the conventions, like using periods to indicate the end of a statement, that we must observe. What questions can you ask yourself on your checklist that will resonate with how you write and what you write in regard to remaining true to your voice? Feel free to add or subtract from this list, and hey, if you come up with something to consider for creating your own personal revision checklist, let me know. I’m a big believer in being teachable and learning as much as I can about the craft of writing. Laura Hamby writes romantic comedy, has been e-published and enjoys her quest for self-directed continuation learning in writing . Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:16 Substitutes for â€Å"Because† or â€Å"Because Of†List of Greek Words in the English LanguageEbook, eBook, ebook or e-book?

Lack of staff training Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Lack of staff training - Essay Example The training and development of staff is predominantly based on the fact that staff skills bear direct relation with the growth of the organization and the requirement to grow the skill is to make the organization grow. Training is regarded as a systematic way of developing knowledge, attitudes and skills of employees to help them perform to the best of their abilities in their respective job roles. The new recruits in organizations have many different skills and may be specialised in a variety of specializations. However, the skills may not be as per the organizational needs and requirements. This is where the need for training and development finds importance in the organizational context. It helps the staff in taking the organization towards its goals and destinations. This project aims to address the issues which might arise due to the lack of staff training in organizations (Olaniyan & Ojo, 2008, p.326). Training, both socially, physically, mentally and intellectually are consid ered to be extremely important for facilitating the productivity of the organization and also for development of the personnel in the organization. ... The organization chosen for the purpose is the Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) which has decided to make investments in the training and development of its staff (WHICH, 2011). The literature review brings forth the supportive and contradicting arguments for the topic. The study also makes a primary research on the topic. This is done by using the method of questionnaire. Finally the data collected is analysed and based on the analysis the project makes suitable recommendations for the same (Olaniyan & Ojo, 2008, p.326). Chapter 1: Literature Review The demand of the marketplace for quality, speed, customization, punctuality, and variety or services and products has been responsible for dramatically changing the landscape for conducting business across the world. Technology usage, the relentless speed with which technology has been changing and upgrading it, skills which the workplaces demand have completely changed the corporate scenario. The increased pressure which has been coming fr om these factors is acting as the driving force behind the constant search for improved and better performance. This is applicable for the smallest and simplest of tasks to the most complex corporate strategies in organizations today. The nature of this dynamic learning and performance of individuals especially at the management levels have been responsible for converting it into a rat race which does not have a finish line. The broader perspective shows that the individual learning and performance acts as the prime factor which keeps organizations ahead or behind their competitors (Kunneman, Key & Sleezer, 2000, p.40). In the year 1998, a study was conducted by the Training Magazine in US reported that organizations in the nation had been

Thames tunnel (london) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Thames tunnel (london) - Research Paper Example The tunnel measures 11m (35 feet) wide 6m (20 feet) high and 396 m (1,300 feet) long (Teape 6). It runs a depth of 23 m (75 feet) below the surface of River Thames when measured at high tide. In early 19 century, there was no land that could connect the South and north banks of the Thames and to connect the expanding docks on either side of the River. The port of London the main hub of across the entire British Empire and the business worldwide. Any bridge constructed was supposed to allow ships that had masts over one hundred feet tall to be sailed under them yet there was no available technology if the Tower bridges lifting bascules to early engineers (Will 15). It could not be possible for a horse to pull a cat that was loaded up through a steep hill up to 100 feet into the air at a gentle slope. The approach ramps needed to be very long, which made in impractical. This pressing need so Engineer Ralph Dodd develop a tunnel to between Tilbury and Gravesend in 1799 (Teape 6). This first attempt did not succeed. Later (1805-1809) a group of Cornish miners being led by Richard Trevithick made another attempt of digging a tunnel upriver between Limehouse/Wapping and Rotherhithe. The equally encountered difficult conditions and failed. As Cornish miners, they were used to dealing with hard rocks. They needed to modify the methods they used in digging hard rocks to enable them to deal with quicksand and soft clay (Teape 8). There was also the problem of the flooding of the initial pilot tunnel. It was reported that after 1000 feet of the total 1,200 feet became flooded, the Thames Archway project was abandoned. It measures 2 to 3 feet by 5 feet, and was intended to be used for a passenger’s use. The failure of this early project made engineers to come to a conclusion that constructing an underground tunnel was impractical. However, Marc Brunel , the Anglo-French engineer, could not agree to this.

Regultion of public utilities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Regultion of public utilities - Essay Example I shÐ °ll use the term in its broÐ °d sense, to comprehend Ð °ll industries over which the right to regulÐ °te hÐ °s been estÐ °blished Ð °nd efforts Ð °t regulÐ °tion introduced. It is worth while Ð °t the outset to distinguish cleÐ °rly between the speciÐ °l control over public utilities Ð °nd the regulÐ °tion of industries in generÐ °l. Under the police power, Ð ° stÐ °te hÐ °s the right to regulÐ °te Ð °ny business. This sort of regulÐ °tion hÐ °s to do with sÐ °fety devices, conditions of heÐ °lth Ð °nd well being of employees, Ð °nd, with more or less defined limitÐ °tions, the generÐ °l welfÐ °re of the public (King, 2000). The regulÐ °tion of public utilities, however, is of Ð ° different sort Ð °ltogether. It embrÐ °ces the right to control the very orgÐ °nizÐ °tion Ð °nd conduct of the enterprise. It is concerned not only with sÐ °fety Ð °nd welfÐ °re, but with the rÐ °tes chÐ °rged the public Ð °nd the returns or profits reÐ °lize d by the business, Ð °s well Ð °s with the products or services furnished. In the so-cÐ °lled unregulÐ °ted business the right to such interference is not recognized. Ð fter Ð °ll reÐ °sonÐ °ble provisions for the public welfÐ °re hÐ °ve been mÐ °de, ordinÐ °ry business is still free to furnish such services or products Ð °s it desires, chÐ °rge such prices or rÐ °tes Ð °s it is Ð °ble to exÐ °ct, Ð °nd conduct its finÐ °nciÐ °l mÐ °nÐ °gement Ð °ccording to its own purposes or contrÐ °ctuÐ °l Ð °rrÐ °ngements. The right to regulÐ °te in the speciÐ °l sense wÐ °s first recognized in the celebrÐ °ted cÐ °se of Munn v. Illinois, decided by the Supreme Court of the United StÐ °tes in 1876.

Enzyme Kinetics: Lactate Dehydrogenase

Enzyme Kinetics: Lactate Dehydrogenase Question: What scientific question was this part of the practical designed to address? What is the effect of heat stability on two isoforms of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH1 and LDH5) after pre-incubation (heat inactivation) of the enzyme samples at different temperatures? Approach: Outline and explain the experimental approach that was used to address the question. In order to determine the effect of the heat inactivation on LDH1 and LDH5, a colorimetric assay was carried out using different reaction mixtures prepared with LDH1 and LDH5. 16 test tubes were prepared each with a specific volume of LDH1 or LDH5. The same concentration of substrate solution containing lactate and NAD+ was added into each of the 16 tubes except for two tubes with the blank solution. Each of the enzyme samples were pre-incubated at 37 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡, 44 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡, 50 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡, 54 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡, 58 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡, 62 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡ and 66 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡. The reaction mixtures had to be mixed, incubated for 37 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡ and allowed to cool. This gives the lactate dehydrogenase enough time to work on the substrates under an optimum temperature. The lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes a reversible reaction by converting lactate and NAD+ to pyruvate, NADH and H+ or from pyruvate to lactate. The overall effect of the enzyme is that it transfers a hydride ion from lactate to NAD+ or from NADH to pyruvate. (Zhadin N et al 2008). The NADH produced in the LDH catalysed reaction has absorption properties (wavelength) that are greater than that of NAD+ which makes it useful for this experiment. When the colour reagent is added to the reaction solutions, NADH was used to form formazon (blue) according to the principle: Lactate + NAD+ → Pyruvate + NADH + H+ NADH + Phenazine methosulphate + H+ → NAD++ Reduced phenazine methosulphate. Reduced phenazine methosulphate + Tetrazolium → Formazan + Phenazine Methosulphate.The extent to which the enzymes have been heat inactivated will be reflected on the intensity of the formazon produced. The formazon was measured at 520nm in the spectrophotometer against the blank solutions for LDH1 and LDH5. The results obtained allowed us to compare how effective the LDH1 and LDH5 is at different pre-incubation temperatures and helps us to study the heat stability of the isoenzymes. Data: In figure 1 the absorbance begins to decline after around 44  °C in both enzyme isoforms. It is evident LDH5 has a higher absorbance than LDH1 at relatively low temperatures, but at 49 °C there is an overlap between the isoenzymes and after this point LDH5 continues to have a lower absorbance reading than LDH1. This shows the enzyme is losing effectiveness at catalysing the conversion reaction at temperatures higher than 44 °C suggesting this may be the enzyme’s optimum temperature at which it is most effective. With LDH1 there is a steady decrease in the enzyme activity of around 20-30% from 44 °C to 58 °C. After 58 °C there is a sharp drop in the effectiveness of the enzyme by around 60%. The decline may be due to the active site of the enzyme being denatured with exposure to the high pre-incubation temperature. The LDH5 begins with an increasing enzyme activity from 37 °C to 44 °C and after 44 °C there is a greater drop in enzyme activity of around 80%. The sharp drop in enzyme activity occurs much quicker in LDH5 than in LDH1 (figure 2), because there is a rapid loss of effectiveness when the temperature is raised above 50 °C. LDH5 also loses function at a lower temperature compared to LDH1; it becomes inefficient at 58 °C, where the curve remains consistent with a very low enzyme activity (0.31-0.62%). In addition, the LDH1 isoform demonstrates half maximal activity at 11.4 °C greater than that of LDH5 illustrating LDH1 is more tolerant to increasing temperatures. The results have shown that LDH5 has low heat stability and becomes inefficient at a lower temperature than LDH1. Discussion/Conclusions: The lactate dehydrogenase is characterised by its isoenzymes that are tetramers. The tetramers are made up of four monomers; H4 (heart) or M4 (muscle). The monomers are formed by a polypeptide chain of amino acids which consists of an active site. When there is lactate and NAD+ present in the solution, the peptide loop in lactate dehydrogenase blocks the access to the binding site after the substrates have bound; this aids the transition state of the reaction. The difference in heat stability between the two isoenzymes in the experiment can be due to the amino acid sequence of M and H subunits. The amino acid composition of M and H subunits consist of the same amino acids, however the difference is that they have varying numbers of each amino acid. LDH1 has a greater composition of valine, aspartic acid and methionine residues in comparison to LDH5 (Goldberg E.1972).The higher the methionine content in LDH1 means there is more sulphur atoms capable of forming strong covalent disulphide bridges, which can be why LDH1 is more heat stable as more energy is required to denature the isozyme compared to LDH5. Heat inactivation of the isoenzymes can affect the protein structure of lactate dehydrogenase. To form the primary structure, the -COOH group of one amino acid combines with the -NH of another to form a peptide bond. Within proteins there are regions that are arranged into alpha helices and beta pleated sheets. The bonds that hold these together are hydrogen bonds between lone pairs of oxygen and a hydrogen atom. The alpha helix is when the polypeptide is in a spiral form allowing more hydrogen bonds to form between the residues. Similarly, the beta pleated sheet consists of polypeptide chains running parallel or anti-parallel to each other. The way the polypeptide chain is arranged allows more hydrogen bonds to be formed. The two secondary structures fold up differently to form a 3D shape. There are various bonds that holds this shape together: ionic interactions between -COOH and -NH2 groups of different amino acids, hydrogen bonds between the side chains, van der Waals forces wher e fluctuating dipole in one of the groups of the amino acid can create a dipole in another which is used to keep the folded structure together, hydrophobic and disulphide bridges. A quaternary structure is formed by interaction of several polypeptide chains/subunits (LDH1 consists of 4 H subunits). In conclusion, the heat inactivation can interfere with the different interactions between the amino acids that make up the protein structures. The heat inactivation has shown to provide enough energy to overcome some of the covalent bonds to denature the enzymes. Since LDH1 is found to have a negative charge it may be associated with many ionic interactions which needs more heat energy is needed to overcome the strong bonds, hence why it takes a greater temperature (66 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡) for LDH1 to lose enzyme activity. The strong bonds holding the LDH1 together means the enzyme is not destroyed at 60 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡ however LDH5 is destroyed which is evident by its inability to function adequately after 55 °Ãƒ Ã‚ ¡. Experiment 2: Question: What scientific question was this part of the practical designed to address? How to study the kinetic parameter of different LDH isoenzymes by finding the Vmax and Km values for LDH1 and LDH5. Approach: Outline and explain the experimental approach that was used to address the question. To study the kinetic parameters of different LDH isoenzymes, the experimental procedure and principles where exactly the same when the reaction mixtures were prepared before. However, the LDH isoenzymes were added to different concentrations of substrate solutions and the temperature was constant. A coloured complex is formed using the mechanism in the previous experiment which produces blue formazon. The absorbance of the formazon was measured using the spectrophotometer; the absorbance measured indicates the enzyme activity. The results from this experiment will help to understand the effect of varying substrate concentration has on the enzyme activity and compare this between the two isoenzymes. To determine the Vmax and Km values more accurately the Lineweaver-Burk-plot is used. Data: Table of results for LDH1 and LDH5 LDH1: LDH5: y = 6.2734x + 0.9242 y = 27.641x + 0.1673 Table of results for Vmax and Km in both isoenzymes. Discussion/Conclusions: As the substrate concentration is increased, the formation of the product will also rise but there is a point at which increasing the substrate concentration any further will become a limiting factor. The concentration at which this occurs is greater than 80mM which may decrease the enzyme activity in both LDH1 and LDH5. Since Km and Vmax is greater in LDH5 indicating the affinity of LDH5 for its substrate is much lower so a greater substrate concentration is needed to reach Vmax. The high Vmax for LDH5 means the saturated lactate dehydrogenase is converting more of the substrates into its products at high substrate concentrations. As a result LDH1 will be a more ideal isoenzyme than LDH5. In this experiment we observed the catalysis of lactate dehydrogenase from lactate to pyruvate. The pyruvate produced has the ability to enter the mitochondria, where pyruvate dehydrogenase links the glycolysis metabolic reaction to the citric acid cycle. In a process of pyruvate decarboxylation, the pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA, which releases energy by converting NAD+ to NADH and H+. Pyruvate has the potential to either enter the mitochondria to become acetyl-CoA or become lactate. The Cori cycle is involved in the conversion of lactate to pyruvate. When lactate is produced in the muscle, it is released into the bloodstream and transported to the liver. In the liver the lactate is first converted to pyruvate by lactate dehydrogenase and pyruvate is converted to glucose through gluconeogeneis. Lactate dehydrogenase becomes activated when there is a high concentration of its substrates, NAD+ and lactate. For instance when the skeletal muscle containing LDH5 have high demands for energy this means the large production of NADH and pyruvate from high substrate levels will not be metabolised by pyruvate dehydrogenase. The LDH5 (M form) is more specialised to convert pyruvate to lactate and ideal for anaerobic activities. Whereas the LDH1 form is more favourable for the conversion of lactate to pyruvate, LDH1 is predominantly found in the heart where there is an aerobic environment. This means despite increasing the substrate concentration, the LDH5 may not become as efficient in converting lactate to pyruvate as LDH1. The results reflect this as LDH1 has a generally greater enzyme activity with an increasing substrate solution compared to LDH5 (see table of results). In conclusion, the results obtained from the analysis of data on excel may not be highly accurate since most of the values have been rounded and it does not take into account any possible practical or human errors. Based on the charge of the two isoenzymes, a gel electrophoresis could have been done to calculate Vmax and Km. Bibliography: Goldberg E. (1972) Amino acid composition and properties of crystalline lactate dehydrogenase X from mouse testes. J. Biol. Chem. 247(7) pp 2046. Zhadin N, Gulotta M and Callender R. (2008) Probing the Role of Dynamics in Hydride Transfer Catalyzed by Lactate Dehydrogenase. Biophysical Journal. 95(4), pp 1975.

Us-Ukraine Relations :: essays research papers

US- Ukraine Relations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recently with the Ukrainian presidential elections, the relationship between the U.S. and the Ukraine has come to the forefront of International policy. Ukraine has been making strides in reformatting its government and culture in a change from communism to democracy. Already they have changed from a command to free market, to an ownership society, and the consolidation of powers should be coming along smoothly with the new president. Lastly, the Ukrainian government has shown its willingness to work with western countries by aligning some polices with the E.U., N.A.T.O., and the U.S. This willingness was also proven in their part in the signing of the START treaty and the signing of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Currently Ukraine has a plethora of natural resources, arable land, and a willing workforce. This combination, with the right economic stimulus can flourish creating a stable and extremely potent economy. In order limit the Russian influence in the area, we must send economic stimulus packages to revitalize the Ukrainian industries. This has already shown promise with the Gore- Kuchma commission and should be continued. Simultaneously it is important that we begin forming a strong trade relationship, focusing on limiting the Ukraine’s need for Russia, by providing an alternate means for goods.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is important that the U.S. insures Ukrainian independence from Russia. If the Ukraine became part of Russia, not only would Russia obtain the worlds leading supplier of ICBMs, But other countries part of the former Soviet Union are at risk of losing their independence. Russia’s interest in the region has recently come to light during the election scandal of 2004. Russia’s president, Vladimir Putin strongly supported candidate Yanukovych in the election. Yanukovych’s main policies dealt with â€Å"Russifying the Ukraine†, and obviously the west did not support this. On the other hand, Yanukovych’s opponent Yushchenko supports more western based ideas. During the investigation into the voter fraud, it is important to point out the massive public protest to the outcome of the election, the so called Orange Revolution. This protest against the government shows the peoples’ want for a democratic government and willingness to fight the government using industry strikes and sit ins. Another important point was the poisoning of Yushchenko which was linked to the KGB and the Russian government. The results of this election shows the need for the United States to help wean the Ukrainian government off of Russian influence.